Ethical Issues
Key Definition
Ethics are moral principles or rules that govern a person's attitudes and behaviour. Ethical issues in computing relate to privacy, inclusion, professionalism, and the responsible use of technology.
Privacy
Once data is stored on a computer, it can easily be copied, shared or transmitted. Key privacy concerns include:
- Personal data collection: Websites, apps and services collect vast amounts of data about users
- Data sharing: Companies may share or sell user data to third parties
- Surveillance: Governments and organisations can monitor online activity
- Data breaches: Hackers can steal personal information
- Location tracking: Mobile devices constantly track user movements
Key Fact
Many smartphone apps request permission to access contacts, photos, location and other data. Users should carefully consider what permissions they grant.
The Digital Divide
The digital divide refers to the gap between those who have access to technology and those who don't:
| Type of Divide | Description |
|---|---|
| Economic | Not everyone can afford computers, smartphones, or internet access |
| Geographic | Rural areas often have slower/no broadband compared to cities |
| Generational | Older generations may be less comfortable with technology |
| Skills | Some people lack the digital literacy skills needed for employment |
| Global | Developing countries have less access to technology infrastructure |
Professionalism in IT
IT professionals should follow ethical codes of conduct:
- Knowledge and qualifications: Have proper training and certifications
- Continuous development: Keep skills up to date
- Best practices: Follow industry standards and guidelines
- Accountability: Take responsibility for work and mistakes
- Security awareness: Protect systems and data properly
Consequences of Unprofessionalism
- Coding errors can cause system failures
- Inadequate testing can lead to bugs in production
- Poor security can result in data breaches and fraud
- Hardware errors could create safety hazards
Craig 'n' Dave: Ethical and Legal Issues of Collecting Private Data
Privacy concerns and data protection
Past Paper Question
Q: Explain what is meant by the 'digital divide' and give two examples. (4 marks)
Mark Scheme:
- The digital divide is the gap between those who have access to technology and those who don't (1)
- Example 1: Economic - some people cannot afford computers/internet (1)
- Example 2: Geographic - rural areas may have poor broadband (1)
- Example 3: Generational - older people may struggle with technology (1)
Legal Issues
Key Definition
Legislation refers to laws passed by parliament that govern how technology can be used. Key laws include the Data Protection Act, Computer Misuse Act, and Copyright, Designs and Patents Act.
Data Protection Act (2018) / GDPR
The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and UK Data Protection Act protect personal data. Key principles:
| Right | Description |
|---|---|
| Right to be informed | Know what data is collected and how it's used |
| Right of access | View any personal data held about you |
| Right to rectification | Have inaccurate data corrected |
| Right to erasure | Request deletion of your data ("right to be forgotten") |
| Right to restrict processing | Limit how data can be used |
| Right to data portability | Transfer data to another organisation |
| Right to object | Object to automated decision-making |
Key Fact
Organisations can be fined up to 4% of annual turnover or €20 million for serious GDPR breaches.
Computer Misuse Act (1990)
This law makes certain computer-related activities illegal:
Unauthorised Access
Accessing a computer system without permission (hacking). Up to 2 years imprisonment.
Unauthorised Access with Intent
Accessing a system to commit or facilitate further crimes. Up to 5 years imprisonment.
Unauthorised Modification
Modifying data without permission (e.g., spreading viruses, deleting files). Up to 10 years imprisonment.
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1988)
Protects the intellectual property of creators:
- Copyright is automatic - you don't need to register
- Protects: music, films, books, software, games, images, videos
- Copyright holders have exclusive rights to publish, copy, distribute and sell their work
- Illegal activities: downloading music/films without permission, copying software, sharing copyrighted content
Software Licensing
Proprietary Software
- Source code is kept secret
- Must pay for a licence to use
- Cannot modify or redistribute
- Examples: Microsoft Office, Adobe Photoshop
Open Source Software
- Source code is freely available
- Usually free to use
- Can be modified and redistributed
- Examples: Linux, LibreOffice, Firefox
Craig 'n' Dave: Legal Issues
Data Protection, Computer Misuse and Copyright Acts
Craig 'n' Dave: Other Legal and Ethical Issues
Additional legal considerations in computing
Craig 'n' Dave: Intellectual Property Protection
Copyright, patents and protecting creative works
Past Paper Question
Q: Describe two offences under the Computer Misuse Act 1990. (4 marks)
Mark Scheme:
- Unauthorised access to a computer system (1) - e.g., hacking into someone's account (1)
- Unauthorised modification of data (1) - e.g., spreading a virus or deleting files (1)
- Unauthorised access with intent to commit further offences (1) - e.g., accessing bank systems to steal money (1)
Environmental Issues
Key Definition
Environmental impact refers to the effect that the manufacture, use and disposal of computing devices has on the natural environment, including energy consumption and electronic waste.
Negative Environmental Impacts
| Issue | Impact |
|---|---|
| Energy consumption | Data centres, servers, and devices require huge amounts of electricity, often from fossil fuels |
| Manufacturing | Production of devices uses metals, plastics and rare earth elements; creates pollution |
| E-waste | Electronic waste contains toxic materials (lead, mercury) that pollute soil and water |
| Frequent upgrades | People replace phones/computers every 2-3 years, creating more waste |
| Difficult recycling | Many components are hard to recycle or contain hazardous materials |
Ways to Reduce Environmental Impact
Energy Efficiency
- Use energy-efficient devices
- Turn off devices when not in use
- Use sleep/hibernate modes
- Data centres using renewable energy
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
- Keep devices longer before replacing
- Donate or sell old devices
- Recycle e-waste properly
- Buy refurbished equipment
Health Impacts
Technology use also affects human health:
- Eye strain: Prolonged screen use causes digital eye strain
- Posture problems: Poor posture when using devices leads to back/neck pain
- Sleep disruption: Blue light from screens affects sleep patterns
- Mental health: Social media can contribute to anxiety and depression
- Addiction: Excessive device use can become compulsive
- Toxic exposure: E-waste recycling workers exposed to hazardous materials
Craig 'n' Dave: Environmental Impact of Computers
E-waste, energy consumption and sustainability
Past Paper Question
Q: Explain two ways that computers have a negative impact on the environment. (4 marks)
Mark Scheme:
- Energy consumption: Data centres and devices use large amounts of electricity (1), often from non-renewable sources contributing to climate change (1)
- E-waste: Discarded devices contain toxic materials (1) that pollute the environment when not disposed of properly (1)
AI, Machine Learning & Robotics
Key Definition
Artificial Intelligence (AI) refers to computer systems designed to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as decision-making, speech recognition, and problem-solving.
Key Terms
| Term | Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Artificial Intelligence | Computer systems that can make decisions like humans | Virtual assistants (Siri, Alexa), chatbots, self-driving cars |
| Machine Learning | Systems that learn from data without being explicitly programmed | Netflix recommendations, spam filters, image recognition |
| Robotics | Design and use of machines to perform physical tasks | Factory robots, robot vacuum cleaners, surgical robots |
| Generative AI | AI that can create new content (text, images, code) | ChatGPT, DALL-E, Copilot |
Ethical Concerns with AI
Algorithmic Bias
AI systems learn from existing data. If the training data contains biases, the AI will replicate them.
Example: Recruitment AI trained on biased hiring data may discriminate against certain groups.
Accountability
When AI makes a mistake, who is responsible? The developer? The company? The user?
Example: If a self-driving car causes an accident, who is legally liable?
Job Displacement
AI and robots may replace human workers in many industries.
Example: Automated checkouts replacing shop workers, AI replacing customer service staff.
Safety
AI systems must be thoroughly tested to prevent harm.
Example: Medical AI giving incorrect diagnoses, robots causing injuries in factories.
Benefits of AI
- Healthcare: AI can analyse medical images, assist diagnosis, discover drugs
- Efficiency: Automation reduces human error and speeds up processes
- Accessibility: Voice assistants help people with disabilities
- Research: AI can process vast amounts of data quickly
- Safety: Self-driving cars could reduce accidents caused by human error
Key Fact
As AI becomes more prevalent, new laws and regulations are being developed to address issues like accountability, transparency, and fairness.
Craig 'n' Dave: Emerging Technologies
AI, robotics and the future of computing
Past Paper Question
Q: Explain what is meant by 'algorithmic bias' and why it is a concern. (4 marks)
Mark Scheme:
- Algorithmic bias is when AI systems produce unfair/prejudiced results (1)
- This happens because AI learns from existing data (1)
- If the training data contains human biases, the AI replicates them (1)
- This can lead to discrimination in areas like recruitment, lending, or criminal justice (1)
Cybersecurity
Key Definition
Cybersecurity is the practice of protecting computer systems, networks, and data from digital attacks, theft, damage, or unauthorized access. It involves both technical measures and user awareness.
Types of Malware
Malware (malicious software) is any software designed to harm, exploit, or gain unauthorized access to computer systems:
| Type | Description | How It Spreads |
|---|---|---|
| Virus | Malicious code that attaches to legitimate programs and replicates when the program runs | Infected files, email attachments, USB drives |
| Worm | Self-replicating malware that spreads automatically across networks without user action | Network connections, security vulnerabilities |
| Trojan | Malware disguised as legitimate software - appears useful but contains hidden malicious code | Fake downloads, phishing emails |
| Ransomware | Encrypts user files and demands payment (ransom) for the decryption key | Phishing emails, malicious websites |
| Key Logger | Records every keystroke to capture passwords, credit card numbers, and personal information | Trojans, malicious downloads, physical installation |
| Spyware | Secretly monitors user activity and sends data to attackers | Bundled with free software, malicious websites |
How Hackers Exploit Vulnerabilities
Technical Vulnerabilities
- Unpatched software: Outdated software with known security flaws
- Out-of-date anti-malware: Security software that doesn't detect new threats
- Weak passwords: Easy to guess or crack using brute force
- Unsecured networks: Wi-Fi without encryption or strong passwords
- Default settings: Using factory-set passwords on devices
Social Engineering
- Phishing: Fake emails/websites that trick users into revealing information
- Pretexting: Creating a fake scenario to gain trust
- Baiting: Leaving infected USB drives for people to find and use
- Tailgating: Following authorized people into secure areas
- Vishing: Phone calls pretending to be legitimate organizations
Key Point
Social engineering attacks exploit human psychology rather than technical vulnerabilities. They often target the weakest link in security - the user.
Protecting Digital Systems and Data
Organizations and individuals can protect against cyber threats using various methods:
| Protection Method | Description |
|---|---|
| Anti-malware Software | Detects, prevents, and removes malicious software. Must be kept up-to-date with regular scans. |
| Encryption | Converts data into unreadable code that can only be accessed with the correct key. Protects data at rest and in transit. |
| Acceptable Use Policies (AUP) | Rules defining how employees can use computer systems, covering password requirements, personal use, and prohibited activities. |
| Backup Procedures | Regular copies of data stored securely (ideally offsite or in the cloud) to enable recovery if data is lost or corrupted. |
| Software Updates | Installing patches and updates to fix security vulnerabilities in operating systems and applications. |
| User Training | Educating users to recognize threats like phishing emails and understand security best practices. |
The 3-2-1 Backup Rule
Best Practice
- 3 - Keep at least 3 copies of your data
- 2 - Store copies on 2 different types of storage media
- 1 - Keep 1 copy offsite (cloud storage or different location)
Craig 'n' Dave: Malware and Cyber Attacks
Types of malware and how to protect against them
Craig 'n' Dave: Social Engineering
How hackers exploit human psychology
Past Paper Question
Q: Explain the difference between a virus and a worm. (4 marks)
Mark Scheme:
- A virus attaches itself to legitimate programs/files (1)
- A virus requires user action to spread (running the infected program) (1)
- A worm is self-replicating and spreads automatically (1)
- A worm spreads across networks without user intervention (1)
Past Paper Question
Q: Describe two methods an organization could use to protect against ransomware attacks. (4 marks)
Mark Scheme:
- Regular backups (1) - so data can be restored without paying ransom (1)
- Anti-malware software (1) - to detect and block ransomware before it encrypts files (1)
- User training (1) - to recognize phishing emails that deliver ransomware (1)
- Software updates (1) - to patch vulnerabilities that ransomware exploits (1)
Topic 5 Quiz
Test Your Knowledge
Complete this 15-question quiz to test your understanding of ethical, legal, and environmental issues in computing.